1 Carl Solberg, Oil Power (NY: New American Library, 1976).
2 David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz, "A Gift of God?" in Dying For Work: Workers Safety and Health in 20th Century America, (Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1989), p. 125.
3 John M. Blair, The Control of Oil (NY: Vintage Books, 1978); Anthony Sampson, The Seven Sisters: The Great Oil Companies and the World They Shaped (NY: Viking, 1975); James Ridgeway: Powering Civilization; the Complete Energy Reader (NY: Pantheon, 1982); Daniel Yergin, The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money & Power (NY: Simon & Schuster, 1991).
4 Thomas P. Hughes, "Inventors: The Problems They Choose, The Ideas They Have and the Inventions They Make," in eds., Patrick Kelly, et al., Technological Innovation: A Critical Review of Current Knowledge (San Francisco, San Francisco Press, Inc., 1979), p. 177.
5 David Hounshell and John Smith, Science and Corporate Strategy: Du Pont R&D, 1902-1980 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), p. 154. Also, Joseph A. Pratt, "Lettingthe Grandchildren Do It: EnvironmentalPlanning During the Ascent of Oil as theMajor Energy Source," The Public Historian 2, No. 4 (Fall, 1980), p. 35.
6 Joseph C. Robert, Ethyl: A History of the Corporation and the People Who Made It (Charlottesville, Va.: University Press of Virginia, 1983), pp. 122- 123.
7 Harold Williamson, et al., The American Petroleum Industry, The Age of Energy, 1899-1959 (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University, 1963), p. 414. Four dead and 49 injured was Williamson's total: Seventeen dead and several hundred injured is Wescott's 1936 du Pont history's total. Contemporary newspapers had the Bayway tragedy at five and the G.M. and du Pont deaths at 6 for a total of 11.
8 Stuart Leslie, Boss Kettering (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983), p. 166.
9 T.A. Boyd, Professional Amateur (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1957); also Rosamond Young, Boss Ket (New York: Longmans, Green & Co., 1961), p. 162.
10 Graham Edgar, "Tetraethyl Lead," paper to the American Chemical Society, New York,Sept. 3-7, 1951, reproduced by the Ethyl Corp.; T.A. Boyd, "Pathfinding in Fuels and Engines," Society of Automotive Engineers Transactions, (April 1950), pp. 182-183; Stanton P. Nickerson, "Tetraethyl Lead: A Product of American Research," Journal of Chemical Education 31, (November 1954), p. 567. Also, S.D. Heron, Development of Aviation Fuels, (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Graduate School of Business Administration, 1950) p. 560.
11 Robert Friedel and Paul Israel, Edison's Electric Light: Biography of an Invention (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1987), p. 249. Also, Frederic Lawrence Holmes, Lavoisier and the Chemistry of Life (Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985), p. xv.
12 These include:
T. A. Boyd, "The Early History of Ethyl Gasoline," Report OC-83, Project # 11-3, Research Laboratory Division, GM Corp., Detroit Michigan, (unpublished) June 8, 1943, GMI Alumni Institute for Industrial History, Flint, Mich. (Hereafter cited as Boyd, "Early History");
Charles Kettering, "Transcript of Matter on the Story of Ethyl Gasoline," dictated in Florida, 1945, GMI Alumni Institute for Industrial History, Flint, Mich. (Hereafter cited as GMI);
Ralph C. Champlin, Ethyl Corp. Public Relations Dept. "Historical Summary Ethyl Corp. 1923 - 1948," Third Draft, unpublished, also known as the "Green Book," Detroit, 1951, GMI;
Frank A. Howard, "History of the Ethyl Gasoline Corp.," memo to Mr. William Benhem, US Dept. of Justice, April 21, 1927; Defendants TrialExhibit No. 274, U.S. v. E.I. Du Pont de Nemours and Co., 126 F. Supp. 235, p. 9. (Hereafter cited as U.S. v du Pont); and
N. P. Wescott, Origins and Early History of the Tetraethyl Lead Business, June 9, 1936, Du Pont Corp. Report No. D-1013, Longwood ms group 10, Series A, 418-426, GM Anti-Trust Suit, Hagley Museum &Library, Wilmington, Del. (Hereafter cited as Wescott, Origins and Early History.)
13 T. A. Boyd, The Early History of Ethyl Gasoline, Report OC-83, Project # 11-3, Research Laboratory Division, GM Corp., Detroit Michigan, (unpublished) June 8, 1943, GMI, (Hereafter cited as Boyd, Early History).
14 Hughes, "Inventors and the Problems They Chose," p. 177. Also see, Anon., "The Trail of the Arbutus," pamphlet probably published either by Ethyl Corp. or General Motors, Aug. 29, 1951, GMI.
15 "A Report of Fuel Research by the Research Division of the Dayton Metal Products Co. and the U.S. Bureau of Mines," July 27,1918, Midgley unprocessed files, GMI.
16 Application Serial No. 210,687 filed Jan, 7, 1918; Patent No. 1,296,832 issued Mar. 11, 1919, assigned to GM Research Corp.; Also, Chemical Abstracts 13, (1919), p. 1636. Ironically, a patent issued the same day to another researcher was for a 50 percent blend of ethyl alcohol and gasoline with 2 percent castor oil as a binder. (Patent No. 1,296,902).
17 Patent application Serial No. 256,874, filed Oct. 4, 1918, Patent No. 1,491,998 issued April 29, 1924.
18 "A Report of Fuel Research," July 27, 1918, Midgley unprocessed files, GMI.
19 F.O. Clements to H.E. Talbott, Feb. 4, 1919, Midgley unprocessed files, GMI.
20 Howard to Clark, April 16, 1919, Trial transcript, p. 3500, U.S. v. v du Pont.
21 Free Alcohol Hearings, US Senate Finance Committee, 1906, Statement of James S. Capen, Detroit Board of Commerce, p. 59. Capen also said: "Alcohol can be produced from any old thing that has sugar or starch in it, and once given our American inventor a chance at a market as great as this, in a very short time he will have processes that will do away with any fear of scarcity of fuel." Capin said alcohol was "preferable to gasoline" because it was easier to make and harder to control than gasoline, and thus "artificial shortages" could not raise the price in the future.
22 David White, "The Unmined Supply of Petroleum in the United States," Paper presented to the Society of Automotive Engineers annual meeting, Feb. 4-6, 1919. Also see George Otis Smith, "Where the World Gets Oil and Where Will our Children Get It When American Wells Cease to Flow?" National Geographic, Feb. 1920, p. 202.
23 "Declining Supply of Motor Fuel," Scientific American, Mar. 8, 1919, p. 220.
24 Charles F. Kettering, "Studying the Knocks,: How a Closer Knowledge of What Goes on In the Cylinder Might Solve the Problems of Fuel Supply," Scientific American, Oct. 11, 1919, p. 364.
25 This interpretation is found in the 1936 du Pont history of the development of tetraethyl lead written by the legal department in preparation for an anti-trust suit (N.P. Wescott, Origins and Early History, cited elsewhere) and is reinforced by Midgley correspondence in unclassified GMI files.
26 For example, alcohol ran the first internal combustion engine, built in 1826 in Connecticut, and Carl Banz's first horseless carriage experiments in Germany in 1860, according to Lyle Cummins, Internal Fir (Warrenton, Pa.: Society of Automotive Engineers, 1989), p. 81.; also, Horst Hardenberg, Samuel Morey and his Atmospheric Engine SP 922, (Warrendale, Pa.: SAE, Feb. 1992), p. 51.
27 Augustus W. Giebelhaus, "Resistance to Long-Term Energy Transition: The Case of Power Alcohol in the 1930s," paper to the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Jan. 4, 1979.
28 Hal Bernton, Bill Kovarik, Scott Sklar, The Forbidden Fuel: Power Alcohol in the 20th Century (New York: Griffin, 1982).
29 Bill Kovarik, Fuel Alcohol: Energy and Environment in a Hungry World, (London: International Institute for Environment and Development, 1982).
30 Scientific American, April 13, 1918, p. 339.
31 H.B. Dixon, "Researches on Alcohol as an Engine Fuel," SAEJournal, Dec. 1920, p. 521.
32 Scientific American, Dec. 11, 1920 p. 593.
33 Boyd, Early History pp. 75-76.
34 Application Serial No. 417,126, filed Oct. 15, 1920, Patent No. 1,501,568 issued July 16, 1924.
35 Kettering to Midgley, Sept. 14, 1920,
Midgley files, unprocessed, GMI.
36 Testimony of Charles F. Kettering, Trial
transcript p. 3573, US v. du Pont.
37 Leslie, Boss Kettering , p. 155. Ethyl alcohol
was "income" rather than "capital" because it
could be produced from renewable resources.
38 The report is not found in archives; Boyd
recalled it in the Early History, p. 54.
39 Boyd, Early History, p. 60-61, also p. 70.
40 Boyd, Early History p. 54.
41 C.F. Kettering, "The Fuel Problem," undated, probably 1921, Kettering un-processed, GMI.
42 Zimmerschied to Kettering, Feb. 27, 1920; Kettering to Zimmerschied, March 3, 1920, Kettering collection, GMI. Note that carburetors had been built with lacquered cork floats before this time, which was not a problem with gasoline. However, alcohol was a solvent for the lacquer. Therefore, GM switched to metal carburetor floats to accommodate the new international fuel blends.
43 Application Serial No. 362,139, Patent No. 1,578,201, issued Mar. 23, 1926. The patent covers blending alcohol and unsaturated hydrocarbons, particularly olefins formed during the cracking process.
44 Harold Hibbert, "The Role of the Chemist in Relation to the Future Supply of Liquid Fuel," Journal of Industrial and Chemical Engineering 13, No. 9 (Sept. 1921) p. 841.
45 Boyd to Midgley, July 8, 1920, Midgley unprocessed files, GMI.
46 "The Discussion" transcript of SAE meeting discussion, Indianapolis, Oct. 1921. Midgley unprocessed files, GMI.
47 Thomas Midgley, "Discussion of papers at semi-annual meeting," SAE Journal, Oct. 1921, p. 269.
48 F.O. Clements to staff, Sept. 9, 1921, Midgley unprocessed files, GMI.
49 One early reference was to 2,500 compounds in "To Learn the Truth about Leaded Gas," Literary Digest , April 18, 1925, p. 17. A sales manager for Ethyl told the New York Times that 2,400 compounds had been tested. "Scientists to Pass on Tetra-Ethyl Gas," New York Times, May 20, 1925, p. 1. An Ethyl sales pamphlet printed two years later put the number at 33,000. The Story of Ethyl Gasoline, pamphlet (New York: Ethyl Gasoline Corp., 1927), American Petroleum Institute Library, Washington, D.C. In the 1950s, as G.M. public relations personnel prepared a history of the discovery, T.A. Boyd wrote "too much" in the margins of one of the manuscripts next to a note about 143 compounds tested. In 1960, a Kettering biographer quoted Midgley as saying 14,991 compounds were tested; Rosamond Young, Boss Ket (New York: Longmans, Green & Co., 1961); and an Ethyl official in 1980 put the number at 144; John C. Lane of Ethyl Corp., "Gasoline and Other Motor Fuels," Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1980), p. 656. The crucial series of tests that were run between August 25 and December 7, 1921 involved 16 elements. Some of these were prepared with different solvents, so that a total of 24 test compounds were run. Dozens of trials were run on each of these under various conditions. This is probably what Boyd had in mind when he said 143 was "too much." If Midgley kept count of every test he ever ran over the seven year period, the number 14,991 might not be questionable. The source of the confusion is simply that the actual day-to-day test diaries used by Midgley, Boyd, Hochwalt and others are not in the public archive.
50 Young, Boss Ket ; Robert, Ethyl. Standard Oil and General Motors officials outside the research labs did not want to use the name Ethyl for the company or the product in 1924, but did so to accommodate Kettering and Midgley.
51 Ferris E. Hurd, (G.M. Attorney), US v du Pont, p. 7986.
52 Midgley to Joseph L. Wood, The Orange Tip Co., Feb. 9, 1922. About 50 other identical letters are found in the Kettering collection, unprocessed Midgley files, GMI.
53 Midgley to Kettering, May 23, 1922, Midgley unprocessed files, GMI.
54 Thomas A. Midgley and T.A. Boyd, "Detonation Characteristics of Some Blended Motor Fuels," SAE Journal, June 1922, page 451. Note: italics indicate a section used at th oral presentation at a June 1922 SAE meetin but not published in the SAE paper; oral pre- sentation from Midgley unprocessed files, GMI.
55 Morrison to Midgley, July 25, 1922, Kettering collection, unprocessed Midgley files, GMI.
56 Thomas Midgley and Thomas Boyd, "The Application of Chemistry to the Conservation of Motor Fuels," Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Sept. 1922, p. 850.
57 Wescott, Origins and Early History, p. 4.
58 Washington Post, July 24, 1923
59 Stanwood W. Sparrow, "Fuels for High Compression Engines," Report No. 232, U.S. Naval Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, 1925, National Archives. The report also questioned the safety of benzol and alcohol blends due to the potential for separation at extremely low temperatures at high altitudes. Alcohol was used as an sec-ondary injector fuel for aircraft in World War II.
60 Midgley to Lt. B.G. Leighton, Mar. 16, 1923, Kettering collection, Unprocessed Midgley files, GMI. It is interesting to note that the U.S. Airship Shenandoah had been using Ethyl gasoline prior to its catastrophic engine failure and crash in September, 1925. See H.L. Calendar, et. al., "Dopes and Detonation," Engineering, April 9, 1926, p. 475.
61 Midgley to Kettering, "Summary of Present Situation on Antiknock Material," Nov. 20, 1922, Factory Correspondence, unprocessed Midgley files, GMI.
62 Application Serial No. 553,040 filed April 15, 1922, Patent No. 1,605,663 assigned Nov. 2, 1926; Application No. 592,435 filed Oct. 4, 1922, Patent 1,492,953 issued July 20, 1926.
63 Boyd, Early History, p. 193.
64 Ibid, p. 179.
65 Midgley to Dr. R.L. Allen, Sept. 9, 1922, unprocessed Midgley files, GMI.
66 Midgley to H.N. Gilbert, Jan 19, 1923, unprocessed Midgley files, GMI.
67 Boyd, Early History, pp. 164 - 170.
68 William M. Clark to A. M. Stimson, Oct. 11, 1922, A. M. Stimson to R. N. Dyer, Oct. 13, 1922, Dyer to Surgeon General, Oct. 18, 1922, N. Roberts to Surgeon General, Nov. 13, 1922, H.S. Cumming to Pierre Du Pont Dec. 20, 1922, and Thomas Midgley to Cumming, Dec. 30, 1922, all in US Public Health Service Record Group 90, National Archives, Washington, D.C.
69 Midgley to A.W. Browne, Dec. 2, 1922, unprocessed Midgley files, GMI.
70 Midgley to G.A. Round, Vacuum Oil Co., Feb.
14, 1923, unprocessed Midgley files, GMI.
71 Joseph A. Pratt, "Letting the Grandchildren Do It," p. 35, and David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz, Dying For Work , p. 123. The authors describe in detail the progress of the research work and the correspondence between G.M. and the Bureau. Citations here include A.C. Fieldner to Dr. Bain, Sept. 24, 1923; S.C. Lind to Fieldner, Nov. 3, 1923; and the agreement between the Dept. of Interior and General Motors, all in Record Group .70, 101869, File 725, US Bureau of Mines; and letters in file 182, General Classified Files 1923, US Bureau of Mines, National Archives, Washington DC.
72 Boyd, Early History, p. 268.
73 Irenee du Pont to Sloan, June 28, 1924, Wescott, Origins and Early History, p. 21
74 Irenee du Pont to Alfred Sloan, Aug 29, 1924, included as appendix to Wescott, Originsand Early History, B-3.
75 "Midge" to "My dear Boss" Kettering, March 2, 1923, Factory Correspondence, unprocessed Midgley files, GMI.
76 Testimony of Charles F. Kettering, US v. Du Pont, p. 3565.
77 P.S. du Pont to Irenee du Pont, March 24, 1922, "Memo RE: Doping of Fuel," Exhibit C, Wescott, Origins and Early History, p. 9.
78 Silas Bent, "Tetraethyl Lead Fatal to Makers," The New York Times, June 22, 1925. Some 300 other workers were poisoned at the Du Pont plant, according to officials Bent quoted.
79 Ethyl Gasoline Corp. et al. v. United States, 309 U.S. 436, (1940), Dept. of Justice records, National Archives, Washington D.C. See also U.S. v. E.I. Du Pont de Nemours and Co., 126 F. Supp. 235. (cited as U.S. v du Pont), 1952.
80 Testimony of W.F. Harrington, US v du Pont, p. 6487.
81 Robert, Ethyl, p. 121 .
82 Testimony of Alfred P. Sloan, US v. du Pont, p. 2941.
83 Wescott, Origins and Early History, p. 20.
84 Ibid, p. B-4.
85 Testimony of W.F. Harrington, US v du Pont, p. 6487.
86 Memo in response to Wescott's Origins and Early History from Irenee du Pont, June 29, 1936. Govt trial exhibit 775, transcript p. 1852, U.S. v Du Pont.
87 Wescott, Origins and Early History, p. 21.
88 Ferris Hurd, closing statement, US v du Pont, p. 7986.
89 "Mad Gas Kills One," New York Times, Oct. 24, 1924, p. 1. The chemist was also suffering from lead poisoning at the time.
90 "Another Man Dies from Insanity Gas," New York Times, Oct. 28, 1924, p. 1.
91 Trial testimony, p. 2169, United States v. du Pont, US District Court, Chicago Ill., Nov. 18, 1952, 126 F. Supp. 235. (Hereafter cited as US v. du Pont).
92 Wescott, Origins and Early History, p. 22.
93 "An Episode Without Precedent," New York Times, Oct. 31, 1924, p. 18.
94 Rosner & Markowitz, "A Gift of God," p.122.
95 "No Reason for Abandonment," New York Times Nov. 28, 1924, p. 20.
96 Alice Hamilton, Paul Reznikoff and Grace Burnham, "Tetra Ethyl Lead," Journal of the American Medical Association, May 16, 1925, pp. 1481-1486.
97 Testimony of Alfred Sloan, US v du Pont, p. 2941.
98 Wescott, Origins and Early History, p. 21.
99 David Hounshell and John Smith, Science and Corporate Strategy: Du Pont R&D, 1902- 1980 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), p. 154. How exactly the two deaths were handled in Dayton is not known, since memos have not survived. The similarity between the incidents is difficult to judge, but at Bayway, five men suddenly went berserk from a sudden onset of severe lead poisoning in a most dramatic manner, an in close proximity of a highly competitive news market. The Dayton, Ohio and Deepwater, N.J., newspapers were far more willing to defer to their corporate neighbors and not ask embarrassing questions about the accidental deaths of workers.
100 S.D. Heron, Development of Aviation Fuels, (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Graduate School of Business Administration, 1950), p.560.
101 Bill Kovarik, Fuel Alcohol: Energy and\ Environment in a Hungry World (London: Earthscan, 1982), p. 62.
102 Handwritten note for telegraph office, Kettering collection 87-11.2-153 Box 64, "European trip," probable date Nov. 30, 1924, GMI.
103 By 1937 it would fall to 26 cents per pound, or $3.38 per gallon of full strength TEL.
104 Testimony, Charles Kettering US v Du Pont, p. 3624.
105 "Experiences with Iron Carbonyl in Germany," IG Farben, Government Trial Exhibit No. 722, US v du Pont, 1953. It is difficult to know which side of this technical debate to believe. In many cases research performed in preparation for contract negotiations may be defensive. It is likely that the buyer (G.M.) overstated the problem while the seller (Farben) understated it.
106 Graham Edgar, "Tetraethyl Lead," paper to the American Chemical Society, New York, Sept. 3-7, 1951, Reprinted by the Ethyl Corp.
107 E.I. Fulmer, R.M. Hixon, L.M. Christensen, W.F. Coover in "The Use of Alcohol in Motor Fuels: Progress Report Number I, A Survey of the Use of Alcohol as Motor Fuel in Various Foreign Countries," May 1, 1933, unpublished manuscript, Iowa State University archives.
108 Du Pont to Sloan June 26, 1925 Government Trial Exhibit 715, US v du Pont, transcript p. 3631.
109 Ibid. Also, Nickerson, "Tetraethyl Lead." Note that I.G. Farben was a conglomerate of German chemical companies which included BASF, or Badische Analin and Soda Fabrik, and seven other firms which had merged all assets in 1924.
110 William H. Smith, Ford Motor Co., to C.E.A. Winslow, August 15, 1925, notes the manufacture of 60,000 gallons per month at the Farben plant. C.E.A. Winslow Papers, Yale University archives. Note that Winslow sent this note from Ford to others on the tetraethyl committee and to the PHS, but PHS files on alternatives to leaded gasoline are not found in theU.S. National Archives.
111 "Liquid Fuels of the Future," Industrial & Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 17, No. 6, April 1925, p.334. Also, "Synthetic Marvels Arouse Scientists," New York Times, May 8, 1925, p. 22.
112 "Synthetic Marvels Arouse Scientists," New York Times, May 8, 1925.
113 Homer S. Fox, "Alcohol Motor Fuels," Supplementary Report to World Trade in Gasoline, Minerals Division, Bureau of Domestic & Foreign Commerce, Trade Promotion Series Monograph No. 20 (Washington, D.C.: Dept. of Commerce, May 15, 1925). The report provided detailed statistics on trade volume, duties, tax incentives and laws surrounding the use of alcohol blended fuels, including ethanol and methanol, in France, Germany, England, Italy and 15 other countries were it was routinely used.
114 Wescott, Origins and Early History. Du Pont engineers were not initially successful in creating the closed system they envisioned, a fault which Wescott attributed to pressure from GM to produce more quickly. The fully enclosed processing system would eventually become the basis of du Pont's future tetraethyl lead production, and the death on March 28, 1925 would be the last in the manufacturing and refining area until an incident in the late 1950s, when eight more workers died.
115 See, for example, Thomas A. Midgley and T.A. Boyd, "Detonation Characteristics of Some Blended Motor Fuels," Society of Automotive Engineers Journal, June 1922, page 451. Similar statements about ethyl alcohol, benzene and other anti-knock agents are found throughout the early 1920s. In April, June, July and August of 1925, Industrial & Chemical Engineering published papers by a variety of scientists on alternative fuels, including ethanol from sugarcane and methanol from coal. A May, 1925 article in the Society of Automotive Engineers Journal detailed the work of the Fuel Research Board on alcohol fuel blends in Britain ("Power Alcohol from Tubers and Roots," SAE Journal, May 1925, p.546.)
116 Sloan to Du Pont, March 28, 1925, Government Trial Exhibit No. 678, U.S. v. du Pont et al., US District Court, Chicago, 1953.
117 Roberts, Ethyl, p. 124.
118 "Work on New Type of Auto and Fuel," New York Times, August 7, 1925; also "New Auto, Fuel to Save Costs are Announced," United Press, August 6, 1925.
119 Gulf had discontinued Ethyl sales on Nov. 1, 1924, "in deference to public opinion" ac cording to Wescott, Origins and Early History, p. 25.
120 U.S. Public Health Service, Proceedings of a Conference to Determine Whether or Not There is a Public Health Question in the Manufacture, Distribution or use of Tetraethyl Lead Gasoline, PHS Bulletin No. 158, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Treasury Dept., August 1925), p. 6. (Hereafter cited as PHS Conference).
121 PHS Conference, p. 106.
122 Ibid, p. 108.
123 Ibid, p. 99.
124 "U.S. Board Asks Scientists to Find New Doped Gas,'" N.Y. World, May 22, 1925, p. 1.
125 For example, Ludlow Clayden, Chief Engineer of Sun Oil Co., predicted 75 to 100 mile-per-gallon fuel in 20 years -- without Ethyl gasoline. "The cost of fuel shouldn't ex- ceed present prices, as it is possible to improve the quality of natural gasoline without resorting to use of Ethyl -- a more expensive product," he said. Clayden was referring to Sunoco's development of catalytic reforming at its Marcus Hook, N.J. refinery that boosted octane by 15 to 20 points -- twice as much as Ethyl and at a much lower cost. See "Predicts Double Gasoline Mileage," New York Sun, Jan. 20, 1926.
126 Howard to Kettering, Sept. 25, 1925, Unprocessed Kettering files, "Cyclo-Gas" file, GMI. Alternatives were an ongoing concern. At one point in 1928, Sloan requested a report on alternatives to Ethyl. At another point in 1931, Boyd identified alternatives in the field. (TA Boyd, "Remarks on Ethyl Gas as Made to the G.M. Technical Committee," March 19, 1931, Box 18, GMI).
127 Kettering Archives oral history project, interview with Frank A. Howard, recorded Sept. 14, 1960, GMI
128 Personal communication, Jerome Niragu, Sept. 1991. An international expert in toxicological studies of heavy metals, Niragu reviewed the original PHS report at this writers request and roughly estimated that blood lead levels would have exceeded 50 to 100 micro- grams per milliliter in the group of highly affected garage workers. The currently acknowledged safe blood lead level is 10 micrograms per milliliter.
129 R.R. Sayers, A.C. Fieldner, et al., Experimental Studies on the Effect of Ethyl Gasoline and its Combustion Products," U.S. Bureau of Mines (Washington, D.C. U.S.GPO, 1927), p. 12.
130 C.E.A. Winslow, "Recommendations for the Drawing Up of a Report on the Use of Lead Tetra-Ethyl Gasoline by the Public," memo to P.H.S. committee members, Dec. 31, 1925, Box 101, Folder 1801, C.E.A. Winslow papers, Yale University Library, New Haven, Ct.
131 W.H. Smith to C.E.A. Winslow, Box 101 Folder 1800, C.E.A. Winslow papers, Yale University. Forwarded to Surgeon General in Sept. 1925.
132 "The Use of Tetraethyl Lead Gasoline in its Relation to Public Health," Public Health Bulletin No. 163, U.S. Public Health Service, Treasury Dept. (Washington: GPO, 1926).
133 Angela Nugent Young, "Interpreting the Dangerous Trades: Worker's Health in America and the Career of Alice Hamilton, 1910-1935," Ph.D. Dissertation, Brown University, 1982.
134 "Public Health Aspects of Increasing Tetraethyl Lead Content in Motor Fuel," Report of the Advisory Committee on Tetraethyl Lead to the Surgeon General, PHS publication No. 712 (Washington, D.C. Public Health Service, March 30, 1959), p. 2.
135 Bernton, The Forbidden Fuel .
136 "May Take Years to Find Good Gasoline Substitute," New York Times, Oct. 25, Section 9, p. 14. Also, Associated Press, "Gas Substitutes Held Uneconomical," Detroit Free Press, October 2, 1925.
137 C.S. Mott, Kettering Oral History Project, Interviewed by T.A. Boyd, October 19, 1960, GMI.